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¹ Bioseafood Research Unit, Universitas Brawijaya, Malang, East Java, 65145, Indonesia
² Fish Product Technology, Universitas Brawijaya, Malang, East Java, 65145, Indonesia
³ Department of Process and Food Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
⁴ Postgraduate School, Universitas Brawijaya, Malang, East Java, 65145, Indonesia

Rahmi Nurdiani
Roles: Conceptualization, Funding Acquisition, Supervision, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing

Asep A. Prihanto
Roles: Funding Acquisition, Methodology, Supervision, Writing – Review & Editing

Muhamad Firdaus
Roles: Conceptualization, Formal Analysis, Methodology, Supervision

Faridatul Nur Aini
Roles: Data Curation, Investigation, Methodology

Fajrin Adin Nabilah
Roles: Data Curation, Investigation, Methodology

Rosnita A Talib
Roles: Methodology, Writing – Review & Editing

Nurul Huda
Roles: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – Review & Editing

Pangasius sp. skin (frozen) was provided by PT. RUM Seafood, Sidoarjo Indonesia, and delivered to the Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science, Universitas Brawijaya. Once the skins were thawed, they were cut into small pieces (0.5 × 0.5 cm²) using clean scissors. The skins were stored in a freezer (−20°C) until use. Gelatin manufacturing started by soaking the Pangasius sp. skin in NaOH 0.1 M solution with a ratio of 1:5 (w/v) for two hours at room temperature. Afterwards, the skin was washed with running water until the pH was normal (pH = 7). Next, the skin was then soaked in an acetic acid solution with a concentration of 0.6 M at a ratio of 1:5 (w/v) for two hours (at room temperature). The swollen skin was then extracted with Aqua Dest, with a ratio of 1:3 (w/v) in a water bath (at 55–60°C) for four hours. Afterwards, the filtrate was collected and poured onto a baking tray for drying using a dehydrator for 8 to 12 hours at 55–60°C. The gelatin sheets obtained were then milled using a grinder to make gelatin powder.⁸

The leaves of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (Taxonomy ID: 39984) were collected from the Sendang Biru coastal area, Malang, East Java, Indonesia. The leaves were dried using a dehydrator for 8–12 hours at a temperature of 40–45°C. Dried leaves were then reduced in size using a grinder. Two grams of mangrove powder was then dissolved into 100 mL of deionized water and heated to boiling for three minutes. The mangrove solution was allowed to cool to room temperature, filtered using a Buchner funnel, and poured into a dark glass bottle.¹²

One mL of mangrove leaf extract was mixed with 9 mL 20 mM AgNO₃. The solutions were incubated for 0, 5, 10, and 15 minutes. The colour change was observed from the original whitish brown to brown.⁹

Edible film was made by dissolving 4 grams gelatin into 100 mL distilled water. The gelatin solution was then heated at 50°C for 30 minutes. Next, the glycerol was added at 0.5% (v/v) and heated at 45°C for 15 minutes. AgNPs with the best incubation time was added at several concentrations per 100 mL (0 mL, 2 mL, 4 mL, and 8 mL). The concentration of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) added to the edible film ranged from the minimum amount needed to show antibacterial activity to the maximum amount considered safe.^16,17 Once ready, the edible film solution was evenly poured into an 18 cm × 18 cm non-stick baking pan before being dried in an oven at a temperature of 55°C for 18–20 hours. The edible film was then removed from the oven, left at room temperature for 10 minutes, and peeled off slowly.¹⁵

Thickness

The thickness of the edible film sample was measured using a micrometre screw with an accuracy of 0.01 mm. Thickness measurements were carried out at five different points, and the average results represented the sample.¹⁸

Moisture content

An empty crucible cup was oven dried at 105°C for 30 minutes. As it cooled down, 1 gram of the sample was then put into the cup and weighed (W1). Next, the sample was put into the oven and dried at a temperature of 105°C for three hours. After that, the cup was weighed again (W2).¹⁹

Moisture content=W1−W2Sample weight×100%

Water vapour transmission rate (WVTR)

The WVTR of each film was measured according to Ref. 20. The edible film was cut into a circle with a diameter of 3 cm. Ten grams of silica gel were poured into a cup. The sample was glued on top of the cup to cover it. The cup was weighed and recorded as W1. The sample was allowed to stand for 24 hours at room temperature and was then weighed again and recorded as W2. The WVTR was then calculated using the formula:

WVTR=Weight differenceSample surface area×Time

Tensile strength and elongation

Edible film was cut to a size of 5 × 1 cm². The thickness and initial length of the sample were measured. Next, each end of the edible film was clamped on a tensile machine. The sample was then pulled at 10 mm/min speed until it broke.¹⁸ Finally, the tensile strength value was calculated by dividing the maximum stress (F max) by the area of the edible film using the formula:

Tensile strength=FmaxA

The measurement of the elongation of the edible film was carried out using a tensile strength device. Elongation is expressed as a percentage and is measured using the formula:

Elongation%=Stretch when breakingupcmInitial lengthcm×100%

pH

The pH test was carried out using a pH meter. The measurement was conducted on the edible film solution prior to the drying process.²¹

Colour

The colour of the edible films was measured using a colorimeter. Measurements were made by placing an edible film sample on the colour reader sensor. The reading button was set to L* (lightness), a* (redness) and b* (yellowness), and the target button was pressed. The results then appeared on the screen.

SPSS commercial software (IBM SPSS Statistics version 25.0, Chicago, IL, USA) was used for statistical analysis. The data were expressed as mean ± standard deviation (mean ± SD). A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey’s test with a p < 0.05 significance level were applied.

Thickness is one of the characteristics of edible coatings that greatly affects the biological properties and shelf life of food-coating products.²⁵ The average thickness of the edible film was between 145 and 216 μm ( Table 1). Although a considerable numerical difference was observed, the difference was not statistically significant (p > 0.05). According to the Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS),²⁶ the maximum thickness of edible film should be 250 μm. The thickness of the edible film is affected by the density, viscosity and surface tension of edible film materials as well as the drying time and layering technique.²⁷

Similarly, Arfat et al.²¹ reported an increasing of edible film thickness due to the addition of silver–copper nanoparticles (Ag–CuNPs). The resulting range was 61–98 μm. The increase in thickness of the edible film was related to the increase of the solid content of the edible film. Furthermore, the addition of Ag–CuNPs to the gelatin affected the structure of the protein, causing it to become regular and the film network to be more robust.

The moisture content test was crucial to determine the total number of water molecules in the edible film tissue. The moisture content in the edible film affects the stability of the product, so it is expected that the moisture content in the edible film produced is low. The moisture content of the edible film had an average value of between 9.57 and 11.16% ( Table 1). Our result was lower than the study reported by Kanmani & Rhim.²⁸

Adding AgNPs into an edible film will usually increase its moisture content because of reduced interactions between gelatin chains and increased availability of free hydroxyl groups to absorb water. The moisture content of edible films can also be affected by temperature and drying methods. The temperature will affect the time needed in the drying process, causing an increase in the intensity of the interaction between water molecules and the hydrophilic polymer chain.²⁹

Statistically, the WVTR test indicated that adding AgNPs into the gelatin solution had no significant effect (p > 0.05) on the value of the WVTR of the edible film. The average value of the WVTR of the edible film produced was 30.91–42.55 g/m²/day ( Table 1). Our results did not meet the Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS),²⁶ a maximum WVTR of 7 g/m²/day. The high value of the WVTR of the edible films is due to the fact that the materials used to make the edibles are made of protein-derived materials that have polar polymers and a large number of hydrogen bonds, thus making the edible films capable of absorbing water at high humidity. The factors that can affect the WVTR values are the presence of chemicals and the structure of the constituent materials, the concentration of plasticizers, and environmental conditions such as humidity and temperature.³⁰

The average tensile strength of the edible film was 14.58–19.72 MPa ( Table 1). The results are in accordance with the Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS),²⁶ as the minimum tensile strength of edible film should be 0.3 MPa. The value of the tensile strength of the edible films decreased with increasing concentrations of AgNPs. This could be because AgNPs are very weak in forming crosslinks with fish skin gelatin during the production of the edible films. In comparison, the resulting edible film elongation value ranged from 54.19 to 21.86% ( Table 1). The results, however, were still much lower than the standard minimum elongation value of 70³¹ elongation is inversely proportional to tensile strength.²³ According to Skurtys et al., ³² elongation is expressed as a percentage change in the film’s original length before breaking and gives a measure of film elongation. Elongation values range from 1 to 80%. The level of elasticity of the edible coating can be seen from the elongation value; the higher the elongation value, the more elastic the edible coating.

The addition of AgNPs into the film resulted in a decrease in the tensile strength value. This might be due to the reduction in protein chain reactions due to incorporation with AgNPs.²⁵ The tensile strength of a film can be influenced by the constituent materials that have structural cohesion properties and the constituent materials of edible films, namely hydrocolloid protein (gelatin), contain amino acids capable of forming disulphide bonds.³³ In addition, the properties of the constituent materials to create a more robust gel network will help the formation of polysaccharide molecular structures more closely, forming a more coherent film structure and reducing the absorption of water molecules.³⁴ Bonilla & Sobral³⁵ stated that the elongation value of gelatin and chitosan edible films with ethanolic extracts from plants increased with the increased volume of extracts. This is due to the interaction between the phenolic compounds present in the extract. Furthermore, gelatin peptides can form covalent crosslinks, forming a more cohesive and flexible matrix. The higher the elongation value of the film, the more elastic it is so that the film can be stretched more. Meanwhile, films with low elongation values will be brittle.

The results showed that the pH of the enriched edible film ranged from 5.92 to 6.01 ( Table 1). It was indicated that the higher the concentration of AgNPs Bruguiera gymnorrhiza added, the lower the pH level of fish-gelatin-based edible film. Bruguiera gymnorrhiza mangrove leaf extract was detected to have an acidic pH of around 6.15, thus, the resulting edible film was expected to have a lower pH value than the control (0% AgNPs).

Colour testing using a colour reader brings up three values: L*, a*, and b*. The L* value indicates the brightness level, a* indicates a red–green colour (a = +60 red, a = -60 green) and b* indicates a yellow–blue colour (b = +60 yellow, b = -60 blue). Edible films produced using gelatin usually have clear or dull/opaque colours.¹⁵ Statistically, the addition of the concentration of AgNPs had a significant effect (p < 0.05) on the L*, a* and b* values ( Table 2).

The addition of a higher concentration of AgNPs on the fish-gelatin-based edible film resulted in a darker colour ( Figure 1), increasing the red and yellowish colour. Similarly, Shankar et al.³⁶ reported that the L* value of edible gelatin films with the addition of metallic nanoparticles (38.20) was lower than the control (93.15).

The best treatment of edible film made from Pangasius skin gelatin with the addition of silver nanoparticles synthesized using Bruguiera gymnorrhiza extract was determined using the De Garmo method (grouping and weighting parameters, where the weights given are in accordance with the importance/priority of each parameter in affecting the results of the research).³⁷ Based on the calculation, it was suggested that the best treatment for all parameters was the third treatment (the addition of 4% silver nanoparticles ) ( Table 3).

The authors would like to thank Universitas Brawijaya and the Ministry of Education, Culture, Research and Technology, the Republic of Indonesia, for the research grant.

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Published: 05 Oct 2026, 12:160

Published: 25 Jul 2024, 12:160

Published: 10 Feb 2023, 12:160

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Nurdiani R, Prihanto AA, Firdaus M et al. Physicochemical Characteristics of Pangasius sp. Skin-Gelatin-Based-Edible Film Enriched with Silver Nanoparticles [version 3; peer review: 2 approved, 1 approved with reservations, 1 not approved]. F1000Research 2026, 12:160 (https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.129024.3)

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Current Reviewer Status: ?

VERSION 3

PUBLISHED 05 Oct 2026

Revised

Reviewer Report 20 Oct 2026

Andriati Ningrum, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia 

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Reviewer Report 12 Oct 2026

Amiza Mat Amin, Faculty of Fisheries and Food Science, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Nerus, Malaysia 

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VERSION 2

PUBLISHED 25 Jul 2024

Revised

Reviewer Report 20 Sep 2024

Abhilash Sasidharan, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway;  Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies, Kerala, India 

Not Approved

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Reviewer Report 08 Aug 2024

Amiza Mat Amin, Faculty of Fisheries and Food Science, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Nerus, Malaysia 

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VERSION 1

PUBLISHED 10 Feb 2023

Reviewer Report 28 May 2024

Amiza Mat Amin, Faculty of Fisheries and Food Science, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Nerus, Malaysia 

Approved with Reservations

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Reviewer Report 10 Oct 2023

Mohamed Bilal Goudjil, Applied Sciences Faculty, Process Engineering Laboratory, KASDI Merbah-Ouargla University, Ouargla, Algeria 

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